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The Early Purge of Yoga

 

Questioner 1: Did the Buddha ever say anything about yoga?

Excellent question. In verse 282 of Dhammapada, it states, yoga ve jayati bhuri: ayoga bhurisankhayo. "Spiritual yoga leads to light: lack of yoga to darkness."[1] One could hardly wish for a more striking statement. The dilemma, however, is that no serious scholar regards Dhammapada as the "Buddha's true utterance" (Pāli, Buddha vacana). 

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Questioner 2: …I would like to make a somewhat academic comment. When I studied Pāli Literature some years back, I was astounded to find that the early editors had meticulously expunged the word yoga from their entire corpus scriptus. This particularly awed me in light of the fact that the far older Vedic-Sanskrit heritage attributes no less than seventeen meanings to the single word "yoga." It is almost as if the Pāli editors had carried out the perfect "yoga-ectomy."

Thank you. I also found this very suspicious. You are speaking of the oldest surviving Buddhist writings, the Pāli Canon, written in the ancient Pāli language. The collection is massive and claims to be the Buddha's true utterings or Buddha vacana. I agree with you. It looks to me as if the Pāli editors embarked upon a painstaking hunt for "yoga," and every time that niggling little four-letter word popped up, … delete, delete, delete.

Exactly. But why should they want to delete it?

It is very revealing that in the Pāli Literature, yoga often appears in its negative form, ayoga. Just as in English, the Pāli prefix a- functions to negate the noun it precedes. Ayoga therefore clearly indicates "the absence of a meditative quality." All the same, it must be said that yoga probably had a very different meaning in the days of the Buddha. Yet, in modern terms it can honestly be stated that the Buddha ate, slept and breathed yoga. His ascetic training began with yoga. He studied years with yoga masters. He advocated yoga to all his disciples. But in the early Buddhist scriptures the practices of yoga are always given a negative spin. This appears in large to be the doing of Sinhalese Buddhism. 

Why would they do that?

The reasons were political, but the results pathological. I take both ancient and contemporary Sinhalese as prime illustrations of this truly global sociopathology. In other words, the disease can be traced back at least to the Hindu-phobic idée-fixe of ancient Sinhalese rulers. And if not always directly politically driven, then developed out of fear and in want to engineer and maintain at a heightened pitch, a position of conflicting theological, cultural, ethnic and political divergence between themselves and their rival non-Sinhalese speaking monarchs across the narrow Palk Strait in India. In other words, I trace the "disease" of contemporary Buddhism, particularly prevalent among the dubious "Theravāda" designation, to a Hindu-phobic idée-fixe, which if not altogether manufactured by the ancient Sinhalese, well, they certainly embody it today.

Could you point to any particular doctrinal mechanism that is key the process you allege?

By taking the core-Buddhist concept of anātman (Pāli annata) and bending it out of all sane recognition through its rearticulation in ways and idioms deemed incompatible with any sort of theistic, or simply non-Buddhist manners of thought, the so-Buddhists have essentially cursed themselves to be unendingly hung up on this after all exceedingly obvious pan-Indian doctrine of 'non-entity.'

But why? I still don't get it.

I think I've said enough. You are trusting too much in what I say. You should investigate these problems yourself. The answers are out there.

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Questioner 3: I notice you tend to avoid the term Theravāda Buddhism and replace it instead with Pāli, Sinhalese or Sri Lankan Buddhism?

Yes. 

Why do you do that?

Your angle lacks pertinence. The better phrased question is, 'When did the Sinhalese become Theravāda Buddhist?'

Do you have an idea?

According to legend, Gautama's teaching was brought to Sri Lanka by missionaries direct from King Asoka's North Indian court about 150 years after Buddha's death. But we don't know what if any specific school these first Buddhist teachers represented. We only know that a Theravāda cult appeared in Sri Lanka sometime after this legendary initial introduction. All the same, the moderen Sinhalese firmly and unquestioningly regard themselves as Theravāda Buddhists. But there seems to be no historical basis for this. As far as I can tell, there is no historical record of the Sinhalese people ever having converted to Theravāda en masse. Two crucial questions naturally arisen here: 1) When did the Sinhalese convert en mass to the so-called School of the Elders or Theravāda? and 2) What precise school(s) did the Sinhalese adhere to prior to Theravāda's emergence on the island?[2]

Are you suggesting that the modern remnant of Theravāda is conducting business on a bogus license?

All I'm doing is calling into question the historical veracity of the Ancient Theravāda cult. If not an absolute historical invention, Theravāda Buddhism is at least a contemporary misnomer. For the sake of precision and clarity alone, the existing regional varieties of so-called Theravāda Buddhism would be much better referred to as Sinhalese Buddhism, after the place where it was first formulated, or else Pāli Buddhism after the language of its scripture. However out of fairness to the modern Sinhalese, it ought to be noted that according to their legends the Buddha himself paid at least three visits to that southern island nation. But then again, this cannot be supported by history.

But even if the Buddha really had gone to Sri Lanka, do you think he would have pushed any particular sectarian doctrine? I mean, would the Buddha have propagated "Buddha-ism" as such?"

You mean: 'How do we know that the Buddha was even a Buddhist?'

Well put. Have you any view?

I view the essential vitality of the "cult," that is, "the religion that has from  the culture the religion," as inseparable from its greater Brahmanical field, and more. Now concerning the founder of this tremendously long-lived religious movement, I uncompromisingly identify him as a kshatriya-caste Hindu named Gautama. And in boldly underscoring his Indian-ness, I gladly part company with those who would persist in shoring up the walls of spiritual apartheid in attempt to partition pan-Indian culture from their exclusive enclave of true salvation. One step further, I would also cast this Brahmano-Buddhic complex as intrinsically rooted in the Religion of the Mother, which 'in ancient times reigned over an immense Aegeo-Afrasiatic territory and that has always been the major form of piety in India' (Eliade). Applying this code to ascetic practice, I declare my position with no equivocation: The Buddha was a master of yoga-tantra. And this is also why the "Buddh(a)," together with its "-ism," can never be conceived as something beyond or incongruous to its aboriginal Indian premise. 

There is a very significant saying in India: "Never compare the beauty of the daughter with that of the Mother." And yet again the Buddha-, as different from the "Jaina-cult," has its own particular and detailed relation to the greater Brahmanical field, as it largely exists in contradistinction to its misperceived notion of the meaning of Hindu. 

Last revised 21 Apr 2007

 

Notes

[1] "What particular school was represented by the mission of Mahinda [supposed son of king Asoka] to Sri Lanka  we do not know. No written Scriptures were taken by this mission, as it was not till two centuries later that they are said to have been written down. There may have been such an official recording, but what we possess are not the Scriptures as introduced in the 3rd century BCE." Edward J. Thomas, The History of Buddhist Thought, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1933. Words in brackets mine.

[2] Juan Mascaro, trans., The Dhammapada, London, Penguin Books, 1973: 75.

 

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